Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices by Coduto et al. - PDF Download
Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices
Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering that deals with the behavior and interaction of soil, rock, groundwater, and other natural materials with engineered structures. Geotechnical engineers design foundations, slopes, retaining walls, tunnels, dams, embankments, landfills, pavements, and other geotechnical systems that are essential for the safety and sustainability of our built environment. In this article, we will explore the principles and practices of geotechnical engineering, including its definition, history, applications, design process, site exploration, soil mechanics, and key concepts and methods.
geotechnical engineering principles and practices pdf coduto.67
What is Geotechnical Engineering?
Geotechnical engineering is a multidisciplinary field that integrates the knowledge of geology, mechanics, hydraulics, and materials science to solve engineering problems involving soil and rock. Geotechnical engineers apply the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to analyze the properties and behavior of natural materials under various loading and environmental conditions. They also use geophysical methods, laboratory tests, field tests, numerical models, and empirical correlations to characterize the site conditions and evaluate the performance of geotechnical systems.
Definition and Scope
According to the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE), geotechnical engineering is defined as "the science that explains mechanics of soil and rock and its applications to the development of human kind". The scope of geotechnical engineering covers a wide range of topics such as:
Soil formation, transport, deposition, weathering, erosion
Soil classification, identification, sampling
Soil properties (physical, chemical, mineralogical)
Soil behavior (stress-strain-strength-deformation)
Soil-water interaction (permeability-seepage-consolidation-drainage)
Soil-foundation interaction (bearing capacity-settlement-contact pressure)
Soil-structure interaction (lateral earth pressure-earthquake-liquefaction)
Rock formation (igneous-metamorphic-sedimentary)
Rock properties (density-porosity-permeability-strength)
Rock behavior (fracture-failure-jointing-foliation)
Rock mass classification (RMR-Q-GSI)
Rock mass behavior (deformability-stability-support)
Ground improvement (compaction-grouting-reinforcement-stabilization)
Geosynthetics (geotextiles-geomembranes-geogrids-geonets-geocells)
Geoenvironmental engineering (contamination-remediation-waste management)
Historical Development
The origin of geotechnical engineering can be traced back to ancient times when humans started to build structures on or with soil and rock. Some of the early examples of geotechnical engineering are the pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, the Roman aqueducts and roads, and the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. However, the scientific understanding of soil and rock mechanics was not developed until the 17th and 18th centuries, when researchers such as Coulomb, Rankine, Terzaghi, and others established the theories of shear strength, earth pressure, consolidation, and bearing capacity. The term "geotechnical engineering" was coined by Karl Terzaghi in 1925, who is widely regarded as the father of soil mechanics. Since then, geotechnical engineering has evolved into a mature and diverse discipline that incorporates advances in geology, mechanics, hydraulics, materials science, computer science, and other fields.
Modern Applications and Challenges
Geotechnical engineering plays a vital role in the design and construction of various civil engineering projects such as buildings, bridges, highways, railways, airports, harbors, dams, tunnels, pipelines, landfills, and more. Geotechnical engineers are responsible for ensuring the stability and safety of these structures by assessing the site conditions, selecting the appropriate foundation type and depth, designing the slope and retaining wall systems, evaluating the seismic hazards and liquefaction potential, and monitoring the performance and maintenance of the geotechnical systems. Geotechnical engineering also faces many challenges in the modern world such as:
Urbanization and population growth (increasing demand for land and infrastructure)
Climate change and natural disasters (increasing risk of flooding, drought, landslide, subsidence)
Environmental degradation and pollution (increasing need for remediation and waste management)
Energy and resource scarcity (increasing need for renewable energy and resource recovery)
Technological innovation and globalization (increasing need for smart and sustainable solutions)
How Geotechnical Engineers Work?
Geotechnical engineering is a complex and dynamic process that involves various stages such as planning, investigation, analysis, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and evaluation. Geotechnical engineers work closely with other engineers, architects, contractors, owners, regulators, and stakeholders to ensure the successful completion of geotechnical projects. The following sections describe some of the main aspects of geotechnical engineering work.
Geotechnical Engineering Design Process
The geotechnical engineering design process is a systematic approach to solve geotechnical problems by applying the principles of engineering science. The design process typically consists of four main steps: problem definition, data collection and interpretation, analysis and synthesis, and communication and implementation. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the geotechnical engineering design process.
Figure 1: Geotechnical Engineering Design Process
The problem definition step involves identifying the objectives, constraints, criteria, assumptions, and alternatives of the geotechnical problem. The data collection and interpretation step involves conducting site exploration and characterization to obtain relevant information about the soil and rock conditions at the site. The analysis and synthesis step involves performing soil and rock mechanics calculations to evaluate the behavior and performance of the geotechnical system under various loading and environmental conditions. The communication and implementation step involves preparing reports, drawings, specifications, cost estimates, schedules, risk assessments, quality control plans, etc., to communicate the results of the analysis and synthesis step to the clients or authorities for approval or implementation.
Site Exploration and Characterization
Site exploration and characterization is a critical step in geotechnical engineering that aims to obtain reliable information about the subsurface conditions at a given site. Site exploration involves performing various methods to investigate the soil and rock layers below the ground surface. Site characterization involves interpreting the data obtained from site exploration to determine the physical properties and behavior of soil and rock materials at the site. Site exploration and characterization methods can be classified into three categories: remote sensing methods (such as aerial photography or satellite imagery), surface exploration methods (such as field reconnaissance or geophysical surveys), or subsurface exploration methods (such as drilling or in situ testing). Figure 2 shows some examples of site exploration methods.
Figure 2: Site Exploration Methods
The selection of site exploration methods depends on various factors such as:
The type and scale of the project (e.g., building vs. bridge vs. dam)
The type and depth of soil or rock layers (e.g., clay vs , finite element method, slope stability charts)
Bearing capacity analysis (e.g., Terzaghi's theory, Meyerhof's theory, Hansen's theory)
Lateral earth pressure analysis (e.g., Rankine's theory, Coulomb's theory, earth pressure coefficients)
Foundation design (e.g., shallow foundations, deep foundations, pile foundations)
Retaining wall design (e.g., gravity walls, cantilever walls, sheet pile walls)
Tunnel design (e.g., tunnel lining, tunnel support, tunnel excavation)
Dam design (e.g., earth dams, rockfill dams, concrete dams)
What are the Key Concepts and Methods in Geotechnical Engineering?
Geotechnical engineering involves many concepts and methods that are essential for understanding and solving geotechnical problems. In this section, we will briefly introduce some of the key concepts and methods in geotechnical engineering, such as soil classification and identification, effective stress and pore water pressure, shear strength and failure criteria, consolidation and settlement, slope stability analysis, bearing capacity and foundation design, lateral earth pressure and retaining wall design, and ground improvement techniques.
Soil Classification and Identification
Soil classification and identification is a process of grouping soils into different categories based on their physical properties and engineering behavior. Soil classification and identification helps to simplify the description and communication of soil characteristics, to facilitate the selection of appropriate soil parameters for analysis and design, and to provide a basis for empirical correlations and generalizations. Soil classification and identification can be performed by using various systems such as:
Particle size classification (e.g., gravel, sand, silt, clay)
Plasticity classification (e.g., liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index)
Engineering classification (e.g., Unified Soil Classification System [USCS], American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO] system)
Geological classification (e.g., residual soil, transported soil, alluvial soil)
Soil identification is a process of determining the physical properties and engineering behavior of a soil sample by using various methods such as:
Visual identification (e.g., color, texture, structure, odor)
Tactile identification (e.g., dry strength, dilatancy, toughness)
Index tests (e.g., grain size analysis the compression and deformation of soil under load. Consolidation is defined as the process of volume reduction of a soil mass due to the expulsion of pore water under an applied load. Settlement is defined as the vertical displacement of a soil mass due to the change in its volume or shape under an applied load. The relationship between consolidation and settlement can be expressed by the following equation:
$$\Delta H = m_v \Delta \sigma'$$ where $\Delta H$ is the settlement, $m_v$ is the coefficient of volume compressibility, and $\Delta \sigma'$ is the change in effective stress.
The concept of consolidation and settlement is important for understanding and predicting the behavior of soil under various loading and drainage conditions. For example, when a load is applied to a soil mass, the soil undergoes immediate settlement due to elastic deformation and consolidation settlement due to time-dependent consolidation. The rate and magnitude of consolidation settlement depend on the permeability and compressibility of the soil and the drainage conditions. If the soil is fully drained, the consolidation settlement occurs quickly and is small. If the soil is partially drained or undrained, the consolidation settlement occurs slowly and is large. Figure 6 shows an example of consolidation and settlement curves for a soil mass.
Figure 6: Consolidation and Settlement Curves for a Soil Mass
Slope Stability Analysis
Slope stability analysis is a process of evaluating the stability and safety of slopes under various loading and environmental conditions. Slope stability analysis involves identifying the potential failure modes and mechanisms of slopes, determining the factor of safety or probability of failure of slopes, and designing appropriate slope stabilization or protection measures. Some of the common failure modes and mechanisms of slopes are:
Planar failure (e.g., sliding along a plane parallel to the slope surface)
Wedge failure (e.g., sliding along two intersecting planes within the slope)
Circular failure (e.g., sliding along a circular arc within the slope)
Compound failure (e.g., sliding along a combination of planar, wedge, or circular surfaces)
Toppling failure (e.g., tilting or overturning of blocks or columns within the slope)
Slope stability analysis methods can be classified into two categories: limit equilibrium methods or finite element methods. Limit equilibrium methods are based on the assumption that the slope is on the verge of failure and that the forces or moments acting on the potential sliding mass are in equilibrium. Finite element methods are based on the assumption that the slope is in a state of deformation and that . frictional, isotropic vs. anisotropic, linear vs. nonlinear)
The type and magnitude of the loading (e.g., vertical vs. horizontal, static vs. dynamic, uniform vs. nonuniform)
The type and level of accuracy (e.g., deterministic vs. probabilistic, upper bound vs. lower bound, conservative vs. realistic)
The availability and cost of software and hardware (e.g., commercial vs. open-source, user-friendly vs. sophisticated, cheap vs. expensive)
Foundation design methods can be classified into two categories: allowable stress design (ASD) or load and resistance factor design (LRFD). ASD is based on the assumption that the foundation is safe if the applied load is less than or equal to the allowable load, which is obtained by dividing the ultimate load by a factor of safety. LRFD is based on the assumption that the foundation is safe if the factored load is less than or equal to the factored resistance, which is obtained by multiplying the nominal load and resistance by load and resistance factors, respectively. Figure 9 shows an example of ASD and LRFD for a shallow foundation.
Figure 9: ASD and LRFD for a Shallow Foundation
The selection of foundation design methods depends on various factors such as:
The type and reliability of the data (e.g., laboratory tests vs. field tests vs. empirical correlations)
The type and variability of the soil or rock (e.g., homogeneous vs. heterogeneous, isotropic vs. anisotropic, linear vs. nonlinear)
The type and uncertainty of the loading (e.g., dead load vs. live load vs. wind load)
The type and level of safety (e.g., serviceability limit state vs. ultimate limit state vs. collapse limit state)
The type and standard of practice (e.g., codes vs. specifications vs. guidelines)
Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Wall Design
Lateral earth pressure and retaining wall design are two interrelated concepts in geotechnical engineering that describe the resistance and support of soil under lateral loads. Lateral earth pressure is defined as the pressure that is exerted by the soil on a vertical or inclined plane within or at the boundary of a soil mass. Retaining wall design is defined as the process of selecting the appropriate type, size, shape, depth, and location of retaining walls to safely resist the lateral earth pressure and other external loads such as surcharge, water, seismic, etc. Some of the common types of retaining walls are:
Gravity walls (e.g., mass concrete walls, masonry walls, gabion walls)
Cantilever walls (e.g., reinforced concrete walls, precast concrete walls, sheet pile walls)
Counterfort walls (e.g., reinforced concrete walls with counterforts or buttresses)
Anchored walls (e.g., sheet pile walls with anchors or tiebacks)
Reinforced soil walls (e.g., mechanically stabilized earth [MSE] walls, geosynthetic reinforced soil [GRS] walls)
Lateral earth pressure analysis methods can be classified into two categories: at-rest condition or active-passive condition . anisotropic, linear vs. nonlinear)
The type and uncertainty of the loading (e.g., dead load vs. live load vs. wind load)
The type and level of safety (e.g., serviceability limit state vs. ultimate limit state vs. collapse limit state)
The type and standard of practice (e.g., codes vs. specifications vs. guidelines)
Ground Improvement Techniques
Ground improvement techniques are methods of modifying the properties and behavior of soil or rock to improve their engineering performance. Ground improvement techniques are used to increase the strength, stiffness, stability, permeability, or durability of soil or rock, or to reduce their compressibility, settlement, liquefaction, or erosion potential. Some of the common ground improvement techniques are:
Compaction (e.g., static compaction, dynamic compaction, vibro-compaction)
Grouting (e.g., cement grouting, chemical grouting, jet grouting)
Reinforcement (e.g., soil nails, ground anchors, geosynthetics)
Stabilization (e.g., lime stabilization, cement stabilization, fly ash stabilization)
Drainage (e.g., sand drains, wick drains, prefabricated vertical drains)
The selection of ground improvement techniques depends on various factors such as:
The type and objective of the improvement (e.g., strength vs. stiffness vs. permeability)
The type and properties of the soil or rock (e.g., cohesive vs. frictional, isotropic vs. anisotropic, linear vs. nonlinear)
The type and magnitude of the loading (e.g., vertical vs. horizontal, static vs. dynamic, uniform vs. nonuniform)
The type and duration of the improvement (e.g., temporary vs. permanent, short-term vs. long-term, reversible vs. irreversible)
The availability and cost of equipment and materials (e.g., conventional vs. innovative, local vs. imported, cheap vs. expensive)
The environmental and social impacts (e.g., noise vs. dust vs. vibration, land use vs. aesthetics vs. heritage)
Conclusion
Geotechnical engineering is a fascinating and challenging field that deals with the behavior and interaction of soil, rock, groundwater, and other natural materials with engineered structures. Geotechnical engineers use various principles and practices to design and construct foundations, slopes, retaining walls, tunnels, dams, landfills, pavements, and other geotechnical systems that are essential for the safety and sustainability of our built environment. Geotechnical engineering also faces many challenges in the modern world such as urbanization, climate change, environmental degradation, energy scarcity, technological innovation, and globalization.
In this article, we have introduced some of the basic concepts and methods in geotechnical engineering and industries such